Throughout U.S. history, conspiracy theories and actual conspiracies have periodically emerged at the highest levels of government. Some were real and well-documented; others were shadows of paranoia or political manipulation. While the United States was founded on principles of transparency and checks and balances, these ideals have sometimes been undermined by covert operations, secret agendas and power plays. The history of high-level conspiracies in the U.S. government is not just a chronicle of intrigue, it is a mirror reflecting the tension between democratic ideals and authoritarian tendencies. Considering the stream of conspiracy theories filling social media today, I though a view from history might give some context.
The Burr Conspiracy (1805–1807)
One of the earliest conspiracies involved Aaron Burr, Thomas Jefferson’s first vice president. After killing Alexander Hamilton in a duel, Burr allegedly plotted to create an independent nation in the center of North America or seize Spanish territories. With a small army and unclear motives, Burr was eventually arrested and tried for treason in 1807. Although acquitted due to lack of direct evidence, the episode highlighted early fears that powerful individuals might subvert the republic for personal ambition.
The Slave Power Conspiracy (Antebellum Era)
During the 1840s and 1850s, many Northern abolitionists believed in what they called the “Slave Power Conspiracy,” the idea that a Southern aristocracy of slaveholders had captured federal power to protect and expand slavery. While often framed as a theory, events like the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Dred Scott decision lent credibility to fears that Southern elites had undue influence over all three branches of government.
The Assassination of Abraham Lincoln (1865)
The assassination of President Abraham Lincoln was not the work of a lone madman, but a coordinated conspiracy led by John Wilkes Booth. The plan included the simultaneous assassination of the vice president and secretary of state to cripple the Union government. The conspiracy was partly driven by pro-Confederate sentiment, and several accomplices were hanged for their roles.
The Business Plot (1933)
One of the most bizarre, and still disputed, episodes in U.S. history occurred during Franklin D. Roosevelt’s first term. A retired Marine general, Smedley Butler, testified before Congress that a group of Wall Street businessmen had approached him to lead a military coup against Roosevelt and establish a fascist-style government. Though no prosecutions followed and some dismissed it as fantasy, Butler’s claims were taken seriously enough to be investigated by Congress. Historians still debate whether the plot was real or a misunderstanding, but if true, it would have been one of the most dangerous threats to democracy in U.S. history.
MK-Ultra and CIA Secret Programs (1950s–1970s)
From the early Cold War through the 1970s, the CIA engaged in secret programs such as MK-Ultra, an illegal mind control and drug experimentation initiative. The program included unwitting human subjects, including U.S. citizens. These activities were unknown to Congress and the public until exposed by the Church Committee in 1975, which revealed a broader pattern of domestic spying, assassination attempts abroad and covert interventions. This era showed how agencies intended to protect democracy could also act in its shadows.
Watergate (1972–1974)
Perhaps the most well-documented high-level conspiracy in American history, Watergate involved President Richard Nixon and senior members of his administration in a cover-up following a break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters. As investigations deepened, it became clear that the administration had engaged in a broad campaign of political sabotage. The release of the White House tapes and the famous phrase “what did the president know and when did he know it” led to Nixon’s resignation, the only time a U.S. president has left office under the threat of impeachment.
Iran-Contra Affair (1980s)
Under President Ronald Reagan, senior administration officials secretly facilitated the sale of arms to Iran, then under an arms embargo, in order to fund Nicaraguan Contras, a rebel group fighting the Sandinista government. This was in direct violation of U.S. law (the Boland Amendment). Figures like Oliver North took the fall, but the scandal implicated high-ranking officials and raised troubling questions about the abuse of executive power and lack of Congressional oversight.
The Pentagon Papers (1971)
While not a conspiracy in the traditional sense, the Pentagon Papers, leaked by Daniel Ellsberg, revealed that successive presidents, starting with Harry Truman, had misled the public about the scale and purpose of U.S. involvement in Vietnam. The documents exposed a sustained campaign of deception at the highest levels of government, undermining public trust and setting the stage for the post-Watergate cynicism.
9/11 and the "Inside Job" Allegations (2001–Present)
The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, sparked a wave of conspiracy theories, with some claiming that elements within the U.S. government had advanced knowledge, or worse, complicity, in the attacks. While no credible evidence has ever supported these claims, the lack of transparency in post-9/11 policies (including NSA surveillance programs later exposed by Edward Snowden) fueled public suspicion. The Iraq War, justified by false claims of weapons of mass destruction, further deepened mistrust.
A Republic, If We Can Keep It
The history of conspiracies at the highest levels of the U.S. government is not one of constant intrigue, but neither is it free of shadows. From the Burr Conspiracy to Watergate and Iran-Contra, these episodes reveal how power can be bent to secret agendas, often outside public view. The resilience of American democracy has always depended on exposure, accountability and civic vigilance. As Benjamin Franklin warned at the close of the Constitutional Convention, we have "a republic, if you can keep it." Whether we do, in part, rests on how seriously we continue to address the real conspiracies in our midst, not just as political theater, but as threats to the core of self-governance and the preservation of the American experiment. In a world where conspiracy theories travel the globe at the speed of social media electrons, sorting through the wild theories to find the real conspiracies is indeed the challenge to which we are daily confronted.
My column sees the world through the lens of Americana and focuses primarily on the culture and history of the United States. It uses the latest technological innovations combined with over seven decades of personal experience to create a vehicle that helps to communicate issues that have resonated throughout the history of the American experiment. My column is free to all but also offers a modest paid subscription for those who want to support the free flow of ideas.